Criminal Justice- Ethics Policy Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Criminal Justice- Ethics Policy - Term Paper Example The ethical policy of the criminal justice system is to be based on the values where the members of the Academy should respect the dignity, worth and rights of every individual – even though they are criminal. This should be the basis of the ethical policy that is to be established for the criminal justice agency. It is necessary to inculcate the actual meaning of ethics in the minds of the members of the agency in order to truly and ethically establish the ethical policies in the agency (Pollock 1998). It is highly necessary to first educate the members of the agency about the importance of ethics in criminal justice. I, as the Head of the criminal justice agency, will first educate my members of the agency about values and importance of ethics in criminal justice system before establishing the same. At the same time the local community and neighborhood watch program should also be considered. The best way is to involve the members of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), which has over 14000 members in 68 countries. The reason for utilizing them for drafting the document is that they make the most universally representative police association. The IACP always emphasizes the needs and importance of ethics training in law enforcement agencies. Hence there cannot anything better than them to draft the document. They are the most experienced and right people for this job (Souryal, 2010). There will at least a few members of this universal body be available who can take the lead in drafting the document. One aspect that is worth mentioning is incorporation of code of ethics outlining standards of professional conduct in the IACP rule making them the choice of drafting the document. As mentioned earlier the ethical code of conduct outlining the standards of professional in the IACP rule would be the biggest reference for drafting the ethical code document for the

Rise and fall of American labor unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5250 words

Rise and fall of American labor unions - Essay Example This kind of project is non-routine work that is not done regularly. A project has duration. Example, the project of basketball construction has duration of two months. Project needs Resources. Project needs, men, materials, time and money to finish the basketball court. Resources are scarce. So, if the organization wants to finish the project, they have to make a budget estimate within which to finish the work. 1.2. Planning and organization. The purpose of planning is to determine the best possible way of achieving specified objective within the specified period of time and costs. It is a technique that aims at maximum utilization of resources. Every person, organization or a government entity has plans. For example, Martha has plans to build a house, the neighborhood plans to build a club house, and the government plans to build a connecting highway. In all of these plans, the elements of project management are important. These are planning, scheduling, implementation, control and monitoring. These are easily done with small projects, but gets difficult and complex when it comes to big projects like government projects. A basketball court construction is simpler in details than a government road project. 1.4 Project appraisal and financing Financing is the significant link between the project and implementation because no matter how good or feasible the project in terms of technical and economics, it cannot work without money. The problem concerns of the project is not only measuring the financial needs but to be assured of financing, where and when needed. This usually entails a loan proposal, and identifying sources of financing. The proponent or organization could resort to borrowings from banks or institutions for private entity; or if it is a government project, funds may come from general appropriations, grants or loan from government banks or rely on foreign loans. In our example, funds for the purpose may come from donations. 1.5 Project life cycle A project has a life cycle. It starts with the conception stage. It is the time when the idea started. Next is the design stage – this is where designs of the project area are presented; usually a committee appraises the appropriateness of the design. Then we have implementation – this is the time of actual work; and the commissioning stage that marks end of project. Going back to project, idea came from the Youth Association, and the design could come from another group who will design, next is a group that finances and implements the project. Last stage is the ending of the project or turn over. 1.6 Organizational workflow, staffing processes and project planning elements Workflow is defined as a sequence of steps that consists of work process involving two or more persons that adds value to the organization’s activities.2 Workflow has two processes, the sequential and parallel work flow. The former is dependent on the occurrence of the previous steps, while th e latter allows two or more steps concurrently. Staffing process. A project requires manpower, and for this purpose, there is a need to establish manpower inventory. First step to staffing is to plan for a manpower inventory in order to match manpower requirements and demand3. Afterwards, other processes follow like recruitment, selection, orientation and placement; and remuneration. A short project does not necessarily involve promotion and

Change is inevitable

Change is inevitable Question Provide a critical analysis of an organisational change which you have directly experienced. You may select one element or aspect of the change for a particular discussion. You will be expected to use the main concepts of the relevant parts of the literature on managing change, to diagnose, account for, and explain the change. Consider what lessons can be learnt from that initiative on the strengths and weaknesses of programmatic approaches to change. Introduction Everyone says change is difficult. It is difficult to conceive because one must inevitably deal with people issues and uncertain future. The more so to implement because consequences can be difficult to predict, harder to track and therefore can create a dynamic all of their own. Is this really so? Is it not true that we are living in an era though which dramatic changes of productivity, technology, brand, image and reputation are common place? Thus reaffirming the words of Heraclitus the Greek philosopher who said â€Å"Change is the only constant thing in life† Change is inevitable but often its easier said than implemented because every change faces resistance in some form and carries with it certain consequences. A classic example would be my experience working in MARG Ltd, one of Indias biggest infrastructure company today. I was given the role of a â€Å"Business Analyst† in 2007 immediately after I graduated engineering. It was my first job, my first real life bu siness experience. I was a part of the company for 2 years. The following parts of my essay consist of all the changes the organization went through in the areas of structure, culture and technology. However considering the requirements of the essay a detailed analysis is written on structural change which is an internal change model. The first part identifies the problem due to monumental growth of the organization in terms of financial support received and the subsequent increase in huge human capital required to carry out the projects. The second part consists of the literature review pertaining to the structural change the organization witnessed followed by a brief critical analysis of the entire scenario. The conclusion consists of the mistakes made and lessons learnt followed by a personal reflection on the dynamics of change management. In April 2007 MARG Ltd consisted of 400 employees. By October 2007, the organization grew to 3250 employees with multiple branches exploding in 7 different cities throughout India. That is nearly 9 times its growth in human capital. This happened due to an investment of USD 12.6 million received from deutsche bank for a total land asset of 12400 acres including 2 potential Special Economic Zones and a port infrastructure development. Being a company with only 2 verticals namely Real Estate Residential and Real Estate Commercial, it diversified into 6 verticals consisting of (a) Real Estate Residential, (b) Real Estate Commercial, (c) Port Development, (d) Industrial Clusters, (e) Special Economic Zones and (f) Power generation with about 500 employees in each vertical. Now each vertical had more employees than the entire company had in April. The earlier organizational structure was a traditional functional structure. This structure can be illustrated by the companys activities group ed into departments such as personnel, Marketing, Finance, Sales, Legal and Civil Operations. All the functional departments excluding finance which had a CFO as its business head had 1 CEO reporting directly to the Chairman, 2 Vice presidents (1 for Real Estate residential and 1 for Real estate commercial) reporting to the CEO and the rest of the team reporting to the VPs. This was a simple structure which had its advantages during that phase of the organization. A complete coordination was achieved as the entire operations of the company were achieved through the CEO overseen by the chairman. This structure allowed for the development of employee expertise in all areas, it provided career paths for professional staff involved and finally there was an effective utilization of personnel across various departments (Carnall, C. 1990). However this structure created pressure on the organization for its further growth in the aspect of geographical dispersion, project diversification and increase in human capital. Hence there was a structural change needed in the form of a matrix structure. The chairman decided on this structure as it offered equal importance on the market and the functional focus to the organizational work. Also most academics have believed that such structure is favourable for large construction, aerospace and computer software companies (Hardy, C. 1994). This favours organization which deals with more than one complex project and where there is a need to coordinate and develop project and various specialist activities. As the demand for various specialist inputs is variable over the completion time lines of the project, this structural change seemed to be the best possible solution which not only promoted the effective deployment on a project when needed but also offered the adaptability over time so that resources can be easily switched between projects. The advantages of a structural change of this nature were (a) it identified the project man agement structures, (b) provided accountability for the project, (c) allowed development of cohesive and effective teams of specialists working towards the objectives of a key project, (d) provided for the professional and career development of specialist staff, (e) and most importantly they provided for the flexible use of specialist staff (Carnall, C. 1990). However every choice carries with it certain consequences and uncertainties. The consequences on the negative side which were later realized was that there was difficulty of handling such a matrix structure in terms of reconciling the need for flexibility with the need for project coordination and control. Now this reconciliation required good working relationships between project and functional management which did not exist. This is because about 90% of the employees were fresh entrants. They did not know the people they were working with. Most of them were fresh graduates and never had any previous work experience in infrastructure. Some of the experienced employees who joined recently were not from the industry. Also the biggest issue was that the employees who have been present since the start of the organization felt threatened with the implementation of the new structure as this does not give them the accessibility they had before with their Chairman. The people who had report ed to their respective bosses had now had to report to somebody else. For example the CEOs had to report to the newly appointed Executive Directors, Vice presidents had to report to business heads who in turn had to report to the CEOs. The entire working relationships and comfort zones of various employees were disrupted by the new structural change. Though people understood the need for such a change and that it was required for the benefit of the organization considering its monumental growth, people feared the loss of power and control thus giving rise to insecurities and conflicts. Based on the literature review the 3 main problems identified in the organization with such a structural change were the struggle between; Centralization vs. Decentralization: Being a company with functional structure, the process was a centralized one where the coordination was more straightforward with decisions being made by the chairman at clearly recognized points within the organizational structure. Also the senior management were in a comfortable position with established policies that they are used for many years. It suited the chairman for he had control over all the day to day activities, most decision making and a convenient resource allocation. In this model the centralization of power and control of procedures was focused on the chairman ( Brooke, T. 1987). But however in order to go to the next level of growth and meet the market demand, it was necessary for the organization to be decentralized. With 6 verticals and a man power of 3250 this seemed to be the sensible choice. With as many as 27 projects spread over 6 verticals, delegation was the key factor in meeting objectives. Delegation can reduce the am ount of stress and overload experienced by the senior management. When senior management is overloaded, the exercise of control is diminished. With delegation it was possible for the senior management and the chairman to move away from day to day activities and focus on long term planning and creating a vision. Also it helps the bottom line management in providing opportunities to make decisions and attain personal satisfaction by matching their personal goals with that of the organization. It assists the management development in widening the on job skills of managers and prepares number of people who are capable of undertaking senior positions in the future. It also provides flexibility, with the establishment of sub units it helps in improved controls and performance measurements and accountability can be identified (Bartlett, C. 1991). Control vs. Commitment: This aspect is important for the overall effectiveness of the organization. MARG had a control model where work was divided into specialized tasks. Performance expectations were defined as ‘standards that define the minimum acceptable performance. No attempt was made to establish maximum or potential performance. With the matrix structure, it was necessary to bring the commitment model. But that meant changing the attitude and expectations of the employees. In this model, job profiles were redesigned to be broader and teams rather than individuals and the each business unit was held accountable for performance. This also involved that people rely on shared goals for coordination; influence was based on expertise and information and not on position anymore. Performance expectations were set relatively high. Continuous improvement was expected and monitored. At the same time lot of motivational programs were incorporated as a part of the business managemen t. The organizational structure was designed to be flatter to enhance performance and commitment (Walton. 1987). This gave birth to reward policies, open door policies and performance management systems. This also seemed to enhance employee management relations. Change vs. Stability: Its a common notion that in a changing world every organization must change to survive and prosper. However while this happens its also mandatory to deploy people to produce goods and services to the market as usual, even if we are demanding extra effort from them as they experience change. This is where it is essential that a balance is maintained between change and stability (Chandler. 1962). This often refers to the transition phase between when the change is implemented and the consequences arrive. The transition phase is normally uncertain in a number of areas. Every employee might react differently to changes. The response is not the same always. MARG experienced similar difficulties. Even though awareness for change was established and people understood the need for change, the existing employees couldnt handle a shift in their normal routine and they had give up on their control and power. To bring about a structural change and yet retain the harmony and employee satisfaction seemed to be a challenge for the company. Even though the problem was identified and the corrective measures were taken to overcome them. There was a hurdle in problem solving and it was the blocks in the minds of the employees. These can be categorized as follows; (a) Perceptual Blocks: This involves the employees stereotyping. They saw what they expected to see. They only saw the new structural change as a threat and not as an opportunity to increase their performance or making use of the opportunities to go up the corporate ladder. There were tendencies to delimit the problem area too closely thus defining it narrowly. Thus they never faced the real problem which was their motivation and commitment. Also there were difficulties in using all the sensory inputs (Adams. 1987). The employees felt that they were overloaded with information on changing structures and the reason for it. With fresh job descriptions and new recruitment there were lot of things happening in the organization and the employees couldnt use all the information for their benefit. (b) Emotional Blocks: This involves fear of taking risk, incapacity to tolerate ambiguity and employees preference to judging rather than generating ideas (Olsen. 1986). The existing employees were afraid to take risks and execute the expected tasks for they feared redundancy and felt insecure that if they failed somebody else in the company would take their place and felt loss of appreciation also as a possible outcome. The matrix structure was put in place quickly and it carried with it certain complexities. The available data was overloading and employees felt it was misleading, full of opinions and had different values. In trying to analyze the available data, they missed out on promising opportunities and self development. Finally they were constantly judging the ideas and solutions put forward by the new members and the new bosses. This lead to early rejection of ideas in their minds resulting in organizational objectives not being met. (c) Cognitive Blocks: This aspect doesnt deal with the employees but is associated with the inadequacies of the management. This comprises of incorrect use of language, inflexible use of strategies and lack of correct information (Janis. 1989). Since the top management were from different backgrounds and industries they were using incorrect languages which portrayed a completely different picture for an infrastructure company. Most senior professional come from a comfortable and set environment which had established process, systems and protocols. Also most of them come from traditional companies. Hence there tendencies to stick to what they know and were stuck with their earlier methodologies. This did not suit the current of MARG as it was still in its transition phase and in early phase of establishing fresh policies and process. In spite of the challenges faced, continued focus resulted in establishing a firm matrix structure with all the employees aligned to the objectives of the organization. There were numerous mistakes made but it also lessons were learnt. This section outlines all the mistakes made, the lessons learnt and finally identifies a change model MARG followed in academic language. The time gap between which the change was planned and executed was very quick. Though its understandable that it was need within a quick span of time it shook the organization by its roots with resistance from all sides. One of the major mistakes was that the chairman being used to getting himself involved in the day to day activities continued to do that even with the new matrix structure and this resulted in the displeasure of CEOs, Executive directors and VPs. This affected their decision making as they would have to wait for the chairman to make every decision. Employees developed their own negative perceptions o f structural change and criticized every plan and ideas without thinking about its benefits. MARG followed a clinical approach earlier where the set limited employees and the comfortable environment made it efficient for success through a psychological contract between the employees and the chairman (Bell. 1995). Employees security was established through personal relationships. However with the new structure it was necessary to adopt a linear approach. In this approach change was implemented as a linear process where the managers were expected to identify organizational adaptations ahead and the new systems developed would propel the organization towards static equilibrium thus resulting in stability (Stacey. 1996). The problems as mentioned earlier were solved in 3 stages. First step was unfreezing. Creating awareness among employees for the need of change and the benefits it would bring not only to the organization but also to the employees. Then comes the step moving. Here new i deas are tested and existing process is revamped. This is followed by refreezing where new behaviours, skills and attitudes are stabilized and commitment to change is achieved (Lewin. 1997). The last step was done in 4 stages. First was the conceptualizing process then the motivation process, the commitment process and finally the implementation and evaluation phase (Kotter. 1988). As a result the organization was able to produce the following after a series of trial and error method; (a) established a sense of urgency for change. (b) Created a guiding coalition. (c) Developed a vision and strategy. (d) Communicated the changed vision. (e) Empowered employees for broad based action. (f) Generated short term wins. (g) Anchored new changes in future (Kotter 1996). All this was possible by working through the blocks and with a series of trial and error method the expected result was obtained. Though the price for such a change was key employees and CEOs resigning, with the objectives b eing met it was a lesson learnt for future transformational change. In the current market scenario it is mandatory for such rapid and monumental changes to handle the increasing demand. As Argryis (2004) said â€Å"If the rate of change outside the organization is faster than the rate of change inside, the end result is nigh†. Hence such rapid monumental changes are needed and every change will always carry with it certain uncertainties and challenges. But thats the only way for organizational development. Bibliography Adams, J.L. (1987) Conceptual Blockbusting, pp 18 pp 43, Penguin Publications Argryis, C. (2004) Double Loop learning and organizational change, pp 104, Wiley Publications Bartlett, C.A. (1989) The critical path to change, pp 57 pp 79, Prentice Hall Publications Burnes, B (2004) Managing Change, pp 61 pp190, Prentice Hall Publications Carnall, C. (1990) Managing Change in Organizations, pp 14 18, pp 120 -pp 142, Prentice Hall Publications Chandler, A. (1962). Strategy and Structure, pp 97 180, MIT Publications Dawson, P. (2003) Organizational Change, pp 43- pp 54, Routledge Publications French, W.L (1995) Organizational Development, pp 55 pp 90, Prentice Hall Publications Hardy, C (1994) Managing Strategic Action, pp 290 pp 320, Sage Publications Janis, I.L. (1989), Dynamics of Change management, pp 119 -pp 123, Mc Graw Hill Publications Kotter, J.P (1996) Leading Change, pp 55 64, Harvard Business School Press Lewin, K. (1997) The cognitive and behavioural elements of organizational change, pp 210 pp 241, Sage Publications Stacey, R (1996) strategic Management and Organizational dynamics, pp 199 207, Prentice Hall Publications Olsen, S. (1986). Strategic Control and Organizational Design, pp 145 pp 151, Mc Graw Hill Publications Wilson, D.C. (1992) A strategy for change, pp 25 pp 90, Routledge Publications

Super Elevations :: physics science

Have you ever been driving down the road and approach a turn too fast? What happens? You and the car undergo centrifugal force and you as well as the car are pushed away from the turn, or up the grade also know as a superelevation. An engineer must balance this force raising the grade on one side of the road. It should be noted that under theoretical observations steering would be effortless but in order to provide these ideal conditions the friction factor would be zero and the vehicle weight would balance the centrifugal force ¹. In the real world we have friction and cannot afford to build the extremely steep slope of ËÅ"30 º every time we need an off ramp or horizontal curve. In order for the operator to comfortably maneuver a curve there are several variables that must be accounted for, the radius of the curve, friction and velocity. Radius length may depend on sight distance and right of way, or property lines as well as sight distance. Friction depends on the surface properties of various materials and climate. The slope and velocity are usually dependent on the variables just described. While building and designing these roads, it is industry standard to put 1/3 of the change in grade within the horizontal curve and 2/3 of the transition length on the tangent. In Layman’s terms, by the time the car approaches the first part of the curve, 2/3 of the grade has already been built. This assures smooth transition for the driver to maneuver the curve ³. In order to get a better idea of what kind of friction coefficients are used in Alaska, we can look at the Badger Road Interchange construction project on the Richardson Highway ². The nortbound on ramp (from Badger Road) will have a speed limit of 35 mph a radius of 135 meters and a superelevation of 5.5%. From this data one may find the friction coefficient, ( µ) to be equal to 0.10. Another example taken from the same project, observed from the off ramp in the south bound lane will have a radius of 253 meters, a super of 6% and a speed limit of 45 mph  µ was observed to be 0.09, which is just enough traction to make these corners at the posted limit. A friction coefficient that small leads the author to assume the engineers designed these turns to be taken under extremely slick conditions.

Man and Woman Relationship in Naga-Mandala Essay

This paper is entitled Man and Woman relationship in Girish Karnad’s Naga-Mandala.. Simone de Beauvoir in her essay â€Å"The Second Sex† states that â€Å"The whole of feminine history has been man-made. Just as in America there is no Negro problem, but rather a white problem; just as anti-Semitism is not a Jewish problem, it is our problem; so the woman problem has always been a man problem.† Woman in Naga-Mandala is seen as an â€Å"other† in the society. It is an analysis of agony and anguish faced by men and woman in the society and their marriage. Karnad’s play reflect upon the role which women play in the society and the images of which are seen as biological, social situation and Indian culture. Every men and woman are said to live in a stereotypical way and this gives them a good name in the society. Karnad’s play focuses on conflicts and dilemmas experienced by men and woman in their social situation. Hypothesis: The study aim in analyzing the man woman relationship which is depicted in the Indian play Naga- Mandala using the concepts of Simone de Beauvoir’s â€Å"Second Sex† and the concepts of Patriarchy. Significance of the study/Theoretical Framework The study of man and woman relationship differentiates male and female in terms of conversation, intimacy and their behavior. The concept of patriarchy oppresses women among the society. In the play Naga- Mandala Karnad clearly portrays the relationship between man and woman with the feminist perspective. The research employs both theoretical and analytical approach with the help of the text using the concepts of Simone de Beauvoir. Literature Review Research paper titled Naga-Mandala: A Story of Marriage and Love, provides the relationship of man and woman portrayed in the play. Analysis Naga- Mandala is a play about a young couple named Rani and Appana. Appana is seen as husband who does not take care of his wife and locks her up in the house and he comes only in the afternoon to eat his lunch. According to Simone de Beauvoir, Appana treats his own wife as the â€Å"other† and makes her passive and static. He uses her as a so called â€Å"wife† to show the society that they are living together. Appanna does not lead a good life with his Rani and imprisons her by locking her up inside the house. Appana’s power is Rani’s subversive nature and the respect she gives to her husband. Rani is portrayed to be a good wife throughout the play. She obeys her husband and cooks lunch for him every day. She sees her husband as a sacred deity and worships him throughout the play. According to the Indian society marriage is seen as something sacred of â€Å"sex and love† between men and women. In this play Rani adjusts and lives her social life by herself, who is appointed by her husband and the traditional society. Throughout the play Appana does not show any love or affection to his wife. The relationship of Appanna and the concubine is considered to be the symbol of lust. Girish Karnad portrays Appanna as the best example of male chauvinism. He goes to the concubine and neglects his own wife and locks her so that she doesn’t get into any relationship. He is seen as a selfish person who leads a lustful life with another woman. He uses this woman only for her body and not because of love. This shows that he is escaping from the reality and cheats his wife and the concubine. He is treating the concubine and Rani in an unfair manner. The relationship with Rani and Naga is considered to a genuine love in the play. Naga comes in the form of Appanna and loves Rani who was in isolation from her real husband. Naga gives Rani everything that she missed from her husband. He also understands and respects her feelings and emotions. Even though Naga is a snake he expresses true love to his beloved which a human being cannot give to his wife. As a result of their love, Rani becomes pregnant. In Kiranth’s words, â€Å"†¦ an Indian woman knows that motherhood confers upon her a purpose and identity that nothing else in her culture can†. At the end of the play Rani is seen as a mother and good wife to Naga. The death of Naga plays a major role in the story where he sees Appanna and  Rani with their child sleeping together, he feels jealous and this shows that he loved Rani and was very possessive on her. He dies for the sake of Rani and her family. Rani asks Appanna to prepare to perform a sacred ritual for the dead Naga and her son should do the last rights of his father, and Appana agrees to her strange demand. This shows the true love that she had for Naga. A.K.Ramanujan writes that the â€Å"ritual tale itself is a public even told during the Cobra Festival to propitiate snake, to ensure safety and fertility within marriage.† Conclusion The analysis of ‘Man- Woman relationship in Karnad’s play, serves as the best example of woman’s position in the society. â€Å"†¦marriage is always open, and a recognition of the blessings and goodwill of the outsider for bringing together the husband and wife.† This is clearly seen in the play where snake- lover is seen as a hero in the play by expressing his true love to his beloved. Appanna has failed in his relationship with his wife and the fate makes him to accept Naga’s son as his own. The two men with different characters serve the twist in the play, and they are direct contrast between each other. In a happy family the husband should always compromise with the wife and the wife should compromise with husband. Thus, after the death of Naga, Appana starts a new life with his wife Rani. References Karnad, Girish. Naga-Mandala: A Play with a Cobra. New Delhi: OUP, 1991. Print. Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Trans.Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevallier. Random House, 2009. Print

Imperial President

‘More imperiled than imperial. ’ Discuss this view of the US presidency (30 marks) Imperial presidency is a term, popularized by the book, written in 1973, by Arthur Schlesinger, a former aide to JFK, called ‘The Imperial Presidency†. It is used to refer to a presidency characterized by the misuse and abuse of the powers of the presidency.. In particular, it refers to the misuse of power and excessive secrecy in dealing with foreign policy. The founding fathers intended the president not to initiate war but be a commander in chief and could only respond to an attack.They intended Congress to be proactive and initiate military action and that the president is reactive and supervises military action. An imperial president would misuse, abuse and ignore these powers. An imperiled presidency is virtually the opposite and is a term used when the president cannot act effectively due to continuous conflict with Congress. At least one of these two terms have been use d to describe each modern president, sometimes both have been used for the same presidency, showing the phrase can be used very flexibly, and can often be down to personal opinion.Nixon described it as a facade created by liberals and defensive congressman. The Development of the Imperial Presidency is often put down to America’s involvement in WW2 after Pearl Harbor in 1941. Before 1941, America had only been to war 11 times, and was often seen to avoid getting involved in foreign disputes and get on with there own business, but this changed obviously changed when they entered the world war. This saw a seismic shift in the importance of foreign policy, and therefore a seismic shift in what the president could do in times of war.In 1941, when Congress declared war, FDR was allowed to break free of his restraints written in the constitution. The time for the Imperial Presidency had arguably begun. Since then, America has nearly been at a constant state of war and â€Å"the Im perial presidency† continued to develop, through the presidencies of Truman, who when North Korea invaded the south in 1950 sent US troops, Eisenhower, who sent 14000 US troops to Lebanon, and JFK, who launched an attack on the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, all without congressional approval as a result.In 1964, the idea of the â€Å"imperial president† took a major step forward. The President at the time, Johnson, was given the power to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attacks on US armed forces, through the Gulf Agreement, also know as the Tokin Gulf Resolution. The Gulf Agreement was like a turkey voting for Christmas, as it took a sizeable power away from Congress and Schlesinger argued Congress had become a spectator.Johnson used this new power to rage war in Vietnam, and by 1969, the US had 500,000 troops on the ground there. The term Imperial President was used to describe Nixon, Reagan, George Bush Jnr and perhaps Clinton. Nixon, seen as the revolutionary p residency, made full use of his war making powers, by carpet bombing Vietnam, bombing Cambodia without even the knowledge of congress, the so called Secret War in Laos, and didn't even ask the Senate to ratify the Paris Peace accords.Reagan was seen as an Imperial President, due to his involvement in the Iran Contra Affair, in which Regan’s Administration sold weapons to negotiate the release hostages, and then used these funds, without congresses knowledge or approval, to fund anti communist rebels in the Nicaragua. George Bush Junior was seen as an imperial president as he used the fear of terrorism to gain support for the 2001 patriot act and other legislation, and went to war unconstitutional in 2001 in Afghanistan and in 2003 in Iraq.Many people argued Clinton was imperial. This was due to two reasons. First, he wrote a letter that America would follow all parts of a treaty that lost in senate, and took part in military action in Bosnia, Serbia and Haiti and approved air strikes in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Sudan. Schlesinger however argued that he wasn't because he was constrained by Congress. There have been, however, presidents that can be described as Imperil. Following the Watergate Scandal in 1972, Congress had finally had enough of the Imperial Presidents.They believed that Nixon had made illegal use of the CIA for political purpose, and that the white house was overly secretive. They past three major acts over 2 years, which brought power, back to Capitol Hill. In 1972, the Case Act was passed which meant that the president was required to submit executive agreements to congress, which prevents secretive agreements. In 1973, the War Making Act was passed which clarified the war making power of the president, and in 1974, the Congressional Budget and Impoundments Control act was passed which increase Congresses power of the budget.This led to Presidents Ford and Carter, being impotent in dealing with foreign policy issues such as the retaking o f Vietnam by the communist backed North, which led to the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, which included the US embassy being overrun. Ford argued the congress was now full of 535 commanders-in-chief and this isn’t what the forefathers intended and it didn't work. He wrote that some people used to complain about what they called an ‘imperial presidency’ but now the pendulum has swung too far in the opposite direction.George Bush Jnr Second Term could also been seen as an imperil presidency has he was constrained by the Supreme Court and Congress. Some people say that these terms aren’t useful and do not fully sum up a presidential term. Many people argue it all depends on the situations of the time, and due to America’s involvement in nearly every country in the world, and with one of the most complex foreign policies in the world, which the Algerian Hostage Situation showed can change course in a day, it is impossible to consult on congress on ev ery development concerning its foreign policy.It also cannot be used to describe every president. George Bush Snr was seen as a cooperative presidency as he asked Congress before sending troops to Kuwait, and seeked bipartisan support, but then took the role of commander in chief from there. Obama can be described as neither, as he seeked congressional approval for the START Treaty in 2010, but didn't ask congress about the use of airstrikes in Libya. I believe that in the past 60 years, presidents have been more imperial than imperiled however, when it comes down to foreign policy.Apart from the two failed presidency’s of Carter and Ford, each president has been allowed to control foreign policy effectively and without much congressional interference, but the control peaks and troughs, therefore depending on the time even within a term, a president can change between an imperial president to an imperil president and back again. The history of presidential power over the last 60 or so years tells us that power is a variable, and that presidential power is cyclical and unpredictable. It varies according to the personality of the president, the situations in which they are in office and how well congress supports them.

Donald Trumps Ancestry

Donald Trumps Ancestry Donald Trumps family tree shows that he, like many Americans, had a parent who was an immigrant. Trump was born in New York City, the city where his Scottish mother met and married his father, himself the child  of immigrants from Germany.   Donald Trump was the fourth of five children born to Frederick Christ and Mary MacLeod Trump. The future president was born in the borough of Queens in New York City on June 14, 1946. He learned the real-estate business from his father, who took over the family construction business at the age of 13 when Fredericks father (Donalds grandfather) died in the influenza epidemic of 1918. Friederich  Trump, Donald Trumps grandfather, immigrated from Germany in 1885. Like his future grandson, Friederich Trump was an entrepreneur. Before settling in New York City and starting his family, he sought his fortune during the Klondike Gold Rush  in the late 1890s, where for a time he operated the Arctic Restaurant and Hotel in Bennett, British Columbia.   The following Trump family tree  was compiled using the  ahnentafel genealogical numbering system. First Generation 1. Donald John Trump  was born on June 14, 1946, in New York City.   Donald John Trump and Ivana Zelnickova Winklmayr were married on April 7, 1977, in New York City.  They divorced on March 22, 1992. They had the following children: Donald Trump Jr. was born on December 31, 1977, in New York City. He is married to Vanessa Kay Haydon. They have five children: Chloe Sophia Trump, Kai Madison Trump, Tristan Milos Trump, Donald Trump III, and Spencer Frederick Trump.Ivanka Trump was born on October 30, 1981, in New York City.  She is married to Jared Corey Kushner, with whom she has three children: Arabella Rose Kushner, Joseph Frederick Kushner, and Theodore James Kushner.Eric Trump was born on January 6, 1984, in New York City. He is married to Lara Lea Yunaska. Donald Trump and Marla Maples were married on December 20, 1993, in New York City. They divorced on June 8, 1999. They had one child: Tiffany Trump was born on October 13, 1993, in West Palm Beach, Florida. Donald Trump married  Melania Knauss (born Melanija Knavs) on January 22, 2005, in Palm Beach, Florida. They have one child: Barron William Trump was born on March 20, 2006, in New York City. Second Generation (Parents) 2. Frederick Christ (Fred) Trump was born on October 11, 1905, in New York City.  He died on June 25, 1999, in New Hyde Park, New York. 3. Mary Anne MacLeod was born on May 10, 1912, in Isle of Lewis, Scotland.  She died on August 7, 2000, in New Hyde Park, New York. Fred Trump and Mary MacLeod were married in January 1936 in New York City.  They had the following children: i. Mary Anne Trump was born on April 5, 1937, in New York City. ii. Fred Trump Jr. was born in 1938 in New York City and died in 1981. iii. Elizabeth Trump was born in 1942 in New York City. 1. iv. Donald John Trump v. Robert Trump was born in August 1948 in New York City. Third Generation (Grandparents) 4. Friederich (Fred) Trump was born on March 14, 1869, in Kallstadt, Germany.  He immigrated in 1885 to the United States from Hamburg, Germany, aboard the ship Eider and became a United States citizen in 1892 in Seattle.  He died on March 30, 1918, in New York City. 5. Elizabeth Christ  was born on October 10, 1880, in Kallstadt, Germany, and died on June 6, 1966, in New York City. Fred Trump and Elizabeth Christ were married on August 26, 1902, in Kallstadt, Germany. Fred and Elizabeth had the following children: i. Elizabeth (Betty) Trump  was born on April 30, 1904, in New York City  and died on December 3, 1961, in New York City. 2 ii. Frederick Christ (Fred) Trump iii. John George Trump  was born on August 21, 1907, in New York City and died on February 21, 1985, in Boston. 6.  Malcolm MacLeod  was born December 27, 1866, in Stornoway, Scotland, to two MacLeods, Alexander and Anne. He was a fisherman and crofter and also served as the compulsory officer in charge of enforcing attendance at the local school from 1919. He  died on June 22, 1954, in Tong, Scotland. 7.  Mary Smith  was born on July 11, 1867, in Tong, Scotland, to Donald Smith and Henrietta McSwane. Her father died when she was just a little over a year old, and she and her three siblings were raised by their mother. Mary died December 27, 1963. Malcolm MacLeod and Mary Smith were married in the Back  Free Church of Scotland  just a few miles  from Stornoway, the only town on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland. Their marriage was witnessed by Murdo MacLeod and Peter Smith.   Malcolm and Mary had the following children: i. Malcolm M. MacLeod Jr. was born September 23, 1891, in Tong, Scotland, and died Jan. 20, 1983, on Lopez Island, Washington. ii. Donald MacLeod was born about 1894. iii.  Christina MacLeod was born about 1896. iv. Katie Ann MacLeod was born about 1898. v. William MacLeod was born about 1898. vi. Annie MacLeod was born about 1900. vii. Catherine MacLeod was born about 1901. viii. Mary Johann MacLeod was born about 1905. ix. Alexander MacLeod was born about 1909. 3. x. Mary Anne MacLeod Fourth Generation (Great-Grandparents) 8.  Christian Johannes Trump was born in June 1829 in Kallstadt, Germany, and died July 6, 1877, in Kallstadt. 9.  Katherina Kober  was born about 1836 in Kallstadt, Germany, and died in November 1922 in Kallstadt. Christian Johannes Trump and Katherina Kober were married on September 29, 1859, in Kallstadt, Germany. They had the following child: 4.  i.  Friederich (Fred) Trump 10.  Christian Christ,  birth date unknown 11.  Anna Maria Rathon, birth date unknown Christ Christ and Anna Maria Rathon were married. They had the following child: 5.  i.  Elizabeth Christ 12.  Alexander MacLeod, a crofter and fisherman,  was born May 10, 1830, in Stornoway, Scotland, to William MacLeod and Christian MacLeod. He died in Tong, Scotland, on January 12, 1900. 13.  Anne MacLeod  was born about 1833 in Tong, Scotland. Alexander MacLeod and Anne MacLeod were married at Tong December 3, 1853. They had the following children: i. Catherine MacLeod was born about 1856. ii. Jessie MacLeod was born about 1857. iii. Alexander MacLeod was born about 1859. iv. Ann MacLeod was born about 1865. 6.  v.  Malcolm MacLeod vi. Donald MacLeod was born June 11, 1869. vii. William MacLeod was born January 21, 1874. 14.  Donald Smith was born January 1, 1835, to Duncan Smith and Henrietta MacSwane, the second of their nine children. He was a woolen weaver and cottar (peasant farmer). Donald died on October 26, 1868,  off the coast Broadbay, Scotland, when a squall of wind overturned his boat.   15.  Mary Macauley  was born about 1841 in Barvas, Scotland. Donald Smith and Mary Macauley were married on December 16, 1858, in Garrabost on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland.  They had the following children: i. Ann Smith was born November 8, 1859, in Stornoway, Scotland. ii. John Smith was born December 31, 1861, in Stornoway. iii. Duncan Smith was born September 2, 1864, in Stornoway and died October 29, 1937, in Seattle. 7.  iv.  Mary Smith